Establishment
The Ptolemaic Kingdom was carved up after the defeat of Cleopatra and Antony at Actium in 31 BCE. Egypt was formed as a new province of the quasi-Republic, with Octavian, later Augustus entering Egypt (for his first and last time) in 30 BCE. From a brief insight it appears that the people of Egypt cared little about who ruled them, as long as their rule was not too dissimilar from the norm. The Persians had troubles with Egypt but pacified it, the Ptolemies found little challenge, and now the Romans were to do the same. Apart from a small resistance movement (which admittedly lasted some years) in the Thebaid region, Rome found relatively little concern in the Egyptian and Greek natives, that is compared to some other provinces that rebelled frequently and were unruly like Gaul. There is a common misconception among historians that in the Roman government Egypt as a province was placed with special regard and privileges. This is however untrue and Egypt followed similar parameters as those set out by central government. This view that Egypt was special comes mainly from a small number of factors linked to it's administration. Firstly, the Roman governor of Egypt was not from the roughly 700 families which made the senate, they were recruited from the knightly Equestrian class. This was extremely unusual in Rome and the patrician class saw this as a man of low social standing controlling 2/3 of the state income, 3 legions and much of Rome's grain supply. This was seen as too much power for a lowly knight, and so many historic commentators have analysed that Egypt surely must have held special position among the provinces. The second point is that senators had to hold special dispensation from the 'princeps', later what we call Emperor, to live and own land in Egypt, or hold any office at all in Egypt. This is due to exactly the fears the patricians had, but applying to themselves. The rulers of Rome (rather wisely) feared that a senator would control a massively powerful province (if somewhat lacking in legions), thus it was decided senators influence in Egypt, even by owning land, would have to be carefully evaluated by the throne itself.
(Although many provinces of similar size such as Spain were separated into multiple provinces, Egypt was kept at it's Ptolemaic size)
Administration
Egypt, as stated above, was ruled by a 'praefectus Aegypti'. This man was taken from the equestrian class and served typically for 3 years. The prefect was the highest point of authority in Egypt and answered only to the emperor, not even the socially higher governors of Syria or Crete and Cyrenaica (which was one province). The prefect had ultimate authority, leading the 3 legions, setting special tax rates (such as import and export tax on the massive Egyptian trade to such places as India) and general administration. It must be noted that in fairness to the believers of Egypt's unique position, most governers could not levy special taxes, but the prefect of Egypt could. Among the equestrian 'cursus honorum' or ladder of public office, 'praefectus Aegypti' ranked as the penultimate position, under Praetorian Prefect who commanded the Imperial Guard. It is clear of the importance of Egypt to further political ambition that between 70 and 235 CE, 14 former governors of Egypt would advanced to Praetorian Prefect. The position also came with a large monetary benefit, being one of the highest paid public roles, a 'ducenarian' posting, being paid 200,000 sesterces a year. The prefect resided at Alexandria, as it was the most unruly, and valuable, city in Egypt, (containing a large Jewish population, who from 70 CE onward tended to rebel)
Below the authority of the prefect were a series of procurators, who had specialist roles (however little of what they did except their title is unknown). The procurators were, as the prefect was, directly appointed by the Emperor, giving them some status over the often snobbish patrician class; in addition the procurators resided also at Alexandria, as this was the main economic centre and their main concern was fiscal. We know the titles and broad functions of the procurators, such as the 'dikaiodotes' who was in charge of matters concerning jurisdiction (presumably of the other officials), the 'idios logos' who oversaw special revenues such as properties that had become vacant for some reason. After Hadrianic times the economy of the province was taken from the prefect and given to a Ptolemaic era procurator, the 'dioiketes' (which was the minister of the economy during Ptolemaic times). All these posiitons also garnered 'ducenarian' rank, and commonly as Imperial freedman this gave them immense wealth compared to what they would have been used to. The lesser procurators were assigned to specific roles, such as the 'procurator usiacus' who oversaw state owned lands, the 'procurator Neaspoleos' who oversaw the Alexandrian grain storage, the 'procurator Phari' was charged with immigration and export controls from the province, the 'procurator episkepseos' saw to cultivated land', and finally the 'procurator ad mercurium' gave out certain monopolies.
On a regional level Egypt was perhaps formed into two designations, over time morphing into four. Originally it was Upper and Lower Egypt, then in addition there were the 'Seven nomes and the Arsonite nome', and the Delta region (that is the Nile Delta on the Mediterranean). The province was kept in the pre-Persian practice of having 'nomes'. There were around 4 dozen 'nomes' each commanded by a 'strategoi'. The Ptolemaic practice of 'strategoi' was altered in that these did not have any military authority, unless given command by the prefect (and even then the Legates and Tribunes would be the on the ground commanders). The Delta region would seem to be under the control of 2 'epistrategoi' or senior 'strategoi' perhaps indicating that the other regions had a lead 'strategoi'. It is important to note that the 'strategoi' came from the provincial elite of Alexandria, not Rome, again reasserting that the throne believed Egypt was critical. The 'strategoi served for 3 years, but this was more guideline than fixed policy, as we see one 'strategoi' serving for more than 15 years (meaning most likely he was an extremely well versed administrator, or extremely well connected).
Taxation formed a large part of the administrations duties, and Egypt collected large amounts of tax. In Roman Egypt there were various forms of regular taxation,called 'tributum capitis' such as yearly tax and import and export tax. These taxes had to be paid by every citizen of the Empire in every province, but Egypt also included another tax, 'tributum soli' which meant the grain that Egypt had to send Rome. These taxes were annual for Egypt, but more irregular taxes came in the form of 'aurum coronarium' given to the emperor on special occasions. The taxation of Egypt came in many forms.
For monetary payments, a poll tax 'laographia' was installed for all those from 14-62, and the wealthiest had a discount (or outright exemption). The level of tax was not based on individual, but by district (as it would be relatively hard to gauge every citizens annual earnings when it fluctuated greatly, and instead the output of each nome was analysed). Members of the Arsonite nome had to pay the highest tax at 40 drachmas a year. When Augustus first incorporated Egypt, it is said that the wealthiest in society had 2/3 of their property and wealth confiscated by the state, a form of irregular taxation. How does one raise additional income in an administration that taxes virtually everything? Tax the Jews. This simply can not be true, that an entire people be taxed simply for being of a certain religion? Fun fact: no. This tax was set at 8 Egyptian drachmas a year, and only started in 70 CE (after the Jews Great Temple in Jerusalem was razed), and was applicable to all Jews from the ages of 3-62 and regardless of sex. There are reports of people having their penis checked for circumcision as there was doubt about their tax compliance. To put it bluntly this sounds wildly racist, and maybe it is, but this is a historic blog, not an opinionated one. Prior to 70 CE observant Jews were obliged to pay tax for the upkeep of their Great Temple, but after it was destroyed in their rebellion during 70 CE, they were made to pay the tax to the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in Rome, for its upkeep. At best this is a transfer of a tax the Jews already paid, and at worst it is a reminder not to trifle with Rome (as Rome soundly defeated every Jewish rebellion faced)
For grain however the tax was put under various categories based on the fertility of your soil and how high the mineral rich Nile flood had been that year. The highest tax was paid in public land as it included both tax and rent. This was the highest tax as well, the other forms of land weren't renting. Land was viewed under categories such as 'dry one year', which was bad fairly obviously because crops need water, and so was taxed lightly. There was a further discount for 'land dry three years', which at that point isn't really arable land is it. Also on the other side of the spectrum extremely wet 'submerged' land was also taxed lightly as well, it was under water.
An early Augustan example of the lucrative taxation of exports and imports is an example of the 'Hermapollon', a ship returning from India with a massive 9 million sesterces worth of cargo. Taxed at the standard 25% for southern imports this made the state 2.2 million sesterces. Factoring in all 120 ships to come from India in that year of 120 means theoretically the state could have made a huge 250 million sesterces.
On a general point about taxation in the Roman Empire it is rather strange to a modern viewer. Various as collectors would bid the government for how much tax they could collect and the person who could do it as efficiently, and cheaply, was selected. This caused problems sometimes as the collectors would overbid themselves and not be able to collect as much as they had been allocated.
(Roman tax collectors, especially in Egypt, were commonly escorted by soldiers)
Economy
The economy of Roman Egypt was largely loosened from the tightstate control of Ptolemaic rule. The markets were opened up freely, and land was turned from public land held by the state into largely private land for people to start whatever business they wished. The manufacturing capability of Roman Egypt was also largely increased and flax, linen and jewellery were notably exported. The mines of the eastern desert were exploited and shipped to Rome, as granite and such materials were in high supply. Trading was the main form of fiscal prosperity for Roman Egypt however. It has already been said that import tax was plentiful, but the sheer scale of it is huge. In 30 BCE when Augustus took over Egypt from the Ptolemies, Egypt made for the Empire 40 million sesterces, (a pitiful amount for such a developed land, equivalent to the barbaric and underdeveloped Gaul). However by 50 CE Egypt made 600 million sesterces for the Empire, which was 2/3 of the state income (as most provinces were in a deficit the Roman state income really was not that large). Slavery, though very profitable, was not the phrase of the day. Only 10% of the Egyptian population, on average, were slaves. It was more beneficial for an Egyptian craftsman to bring on an apprentice, as the family may pay for the service, and the master got a skilled labourer in advance. Contrasted to the hordes of slaves cultivating Empire land, Egypt was largely tended to by free Egyptians (although not full citizens of the Empire. The strong economy can be seen by advice Augustus left to his successor that no further conquest could be done as the state could not afford it, yet by Claudius' time, Britain had been conquered, adding another deficit province to the Empire (largely due to Egypt's cash was this possible).
Military
The army in Egypt was extremely standard in organisation, however its characteristics were unique in some ways. The army had a large amount more Greek speakers than any other province. We hear of one legatus (commander of a legion) reffered to as 'praefectus stratopedarches'. This is heard nowhere else in the empire and is clearly a Greek hybrid rank. In addition is the strange units available to the 'praefectus Aegypti'. He had an officer called the 'archistator', who was in command of the 'statores'. This formation was several hundred men strong and was apparently willing to accept any duty, although being so close to the prefect it is likely they were his bodyguard and special forces. It is known that auxiliary commanders had a few 'statores', literally only a few though, available to them, perhaps in an advisory role, but never is a governor seen with several hundred of them.
On the organisational side, there were 3, then 2, then 1 legion stationed in Egypt (cutbacks due to need of troops elsewhere over time), and of the standard 5,000 men and training with 120 cavalry men. We know definately that the following legions were deployed to Egypt at some point: XXII Deiotariana, III Cyrenaica, II Traiana, and XV Apollonaris. The auxiliary units were strong in Egypt, perhaps because it was so far away from most of their homelands they would not be tempted to rebel. There were 3-4 cavalry 'alae' (500 horsemen), and 8 infantry cohorts (500) men too. This means that in Egypt at its official peak there were 75,000 army personnel (not counting the navy, which had strong contingents of marines that could match the legions). An example of an auxiliary unit that moved to Egypt, then Germany, then back to Egypt is the 'ala' Vocontorium, which originally left in 60 CE, and was back by 105 CE.
The army in Egypt was mostly stationed at Alexandria to keep the peace (mainly from the Jews, as after 70 CE Alexandria saw a massive influx of refugees). However many garrisons were placed around the main trade routes to deter desert bandits, and Augustus strengthened the routes with outposts 'praesidia', and the largest caravans were accompanied by military escorts.
It is important to note that the legates and tribunes of the legions all came from the equestrian order. This once again stems from the mistrust the throne had for the patrician class to command Egypt. This is surprising militarily as provinces with massive armies like Macedon (with 6 legions) and Syria (with 4 legions) were all commanded exclusively by the senatorial class. However it is also important to note that the largest concentration of troops in any given area, the Praetorians in Italia, were commanded by an Equestrian, so perhaps Egypt added weight to the equestrian military command the throne could call upon. This equestrian command has commonly been seen as degrading the quality of command, but I disagree unequivocally. The equestrians who commanded these legions were promoted from the leading centurions and other actual soldiers. This is contrasted by the senatorial tribunes that rose to command legions as Legates, who usually only had fleeting experience, relied upon the Governor (or prefect in Egypt) for instruction, and usually only went to quite provinces to add to their accomplishments and receive little risk of danger. The Legates of the Egyptian legions were all thoroughly professional soldiers who had for most of their lives been a soldier and did not have the resources of their senatorial peers to just buy their way into the army, meaning the overall quality of Egypt's army surely must have been improved.
Having combed through all texts available, including being disappointed that 'Imperial Roman Naval Forces 31 BC-AD 500' did not hold information on the Alexandrian fleet, I have little information to share on the Alexandrian fleet. It was not the largest in the Empire, but certainly dominated the eastern seas (being bigger than say the Syrian fleet at Antioch). It was comprised mainly of native Egyptians, and would have had several cohorts worth of naval marines (equivalent in training and arms to a legionary). It was mainly dutiable with Nile patrol, and crucially escorting the grain from Alexandria to Rome. The fleet would most definitely have been commanded by an equestrian (the same as the other military ranks) and most likely in the early days, say 30 BCE - 5 CE, be incorporated with ships of the ex-Ptolemaic and Antonine navies.
(Cavalry in Egypt is well attested and would mostly be stationed at Alexandria, ready to ride south into Upper Egypt, or East into Syria and Judea)
Religion
Religion under Roman Egypt was deceptively boring. The Ptolemaic practice of Graeco-Egyptian religion continued, with little evidence of mass Romanisation. However after 70 CE there were large contingents of Jews fleeing the site of their rebellion in Jerusalem, and also Christians, who were persecuted greatly but continued to grow in number (especially seeing how close Egypt was from Jerusalem). Very little was built by the Romans in Egypt religion wise, and one would assume this was to keep the populace happy with their preferred religions. This is most easily accepted when considering that the vast majority of Egyptians were not considered full Roman citizens. This means to the Roman approach to Egyptian religion it really does boil down to the wise old adage, who cares? The Egyptians didn't cause a fuss (it was mainly the Jews) and so the Romans were content with that.
(Kom Ombo temple is one of the latest Egyptian temples built, largely by the Ptolemies)
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